Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition

Davahiva Gómez R. Briana; Ana Maria Narváez Rivas; Miguel Ángel Caro Roldan

doi:10.51745/najfnr.9.19.137-150

Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition

PDF (Full text)

Infant, Child, and Adolescent Nutrition

DOI https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.9.19.137-150

Issue Vol. 9 No. 19 (2025): January - June, 2025

Submitted 2024-09-25

Accepted 2025-03-18

Published 2025-04-03

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

Background: The adoption of plant-based diets, including vegetarian and vegan variations, is experiencing a notable increase among pediatric populations, driven by ethical, environmental, and health considerations. However, the appropriateness of these dietary patterns, particularly in relation to nutritional sufficiency, remains a subject of scholarly discourse.

Aims: This narrative review aims to synthesize the anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional aspects of vegetarian and vegan diets in children and to provide evidence-based guidelines for ensuring nutritional adequacy while adhering to a vegetarian lifestyle.

Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted across PubMed, Science Direct, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to February 2024. Search terms included variations of "vegetarian" and "vegan" in conjunction with "infant," "child," "anthropometric," and "nutritional intake." Studies were selected based on their relevance to dietary intake, nutritional status, and health, while excluding investigations focused on macrobiotic dietary patterns.

Results: A total of 278 articles were initially identified, of which 38 underwent full-text review. Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Anthropometric data indicated that vegetarian and vegan children generally exhibit similar growth patterns to their omnivorous peers, though some studies show slightly lower height and weight percentiles. Dietary intake analysis revealed a tendency for vegetarian diets to exhibit higher consumption of fruits, vegetables, and fiber but potentially lower intakes of calorie energy, protein, and critical micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and calcium. Despite some deficiencies, the availability of contemporary food products and nutritional supplements have contributed to improved nutrient availability.

Conclusions: While vegetarian dietary patterns can support healthy growth and development in children, meticulous dietary planning is essential to avoid the risk of nutritional deficiencies. The availability of specialized vegetarian products and fortified foods has enhanced dietary outcomes. Sustained professional guidance from healthcare professionals is crucial for optimizing nutritional intake and ensuring that vegetarian diets meet the developmental needs of children. Future research should persist in addressing knowledge gaps and refining dietary recommendations.

Keywords

Anthropometry Child Nutrition Dietary Intake Nutritional Status Vegetarian Diet Veganism

Davahiva Gómez R. Briana

Grupo de Investigación en Alimentación y Nutrición Humana; Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética; Universidad de Antioquia; Medellín-Colombia
Ana Maria Narváez Rivas

Grupo de Investigación en Alimentación y Nutrición Humana; Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética; Universidad de Antioquia; Medellín-Colombia
Miguel Ángel Caro Roldan

Grupo de Investigación Gestión de Servicios de Alimentación y Nutrición a Colectividades, Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín-Colombia

PDF (Full text)

How to Cite

Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition. (2025). The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 9(19), 137-150. https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.9.19.137-150

More Citation Formats

Download Citation

Alexy, U. (2023). Diet and growth of vegetarian and vegan children. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health, 6(Suppl 2), s3–s11. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2023-000697

Alexy, U., Fischer, M., Weder, S., Längler, A., Michalsen, A., & Keller, M. (2022). Food group intake of children and adolescents (6–18 years) on a vegetarian, vegan or omnivore diet: Results of the VeChi Youth Study. British Journal of Nutrition, 128(5), 851–862. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114521003603

Alexy, U., Fischer, M., Weder, S., Längler, A., Michalsen, A., & Keller, M. (2021a). VeChi-Youth-Studie im 14. Ernährungsbericht der DGE. VeChi Youth. https://vechi-

Alexy, U., Fischer, M., Weder, S., Längler, A., Michalsen, A., Sputtek, A., & Keller, M. (2021b). Nutrient intake and status of German children and adolescents consuming vegetarian, vegan or omnivore diets: Results of the VeChi Youth Study. Nutrients, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051707

Alexy, U., Janz, N., & Kersting, M. (2017). Food and meals in vegetarian children and adolescents. In Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention (pp. 549–564). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803968-7.00031-9

Ambroszkiewicz, J., Klemarczyk, W., Gajewska, J., Chełchowska, M., & Laskowska-Klita, T. (2007). Serum concentration of biochemical bone turnover markers in vegetarian children. Advances in Medical Sciences, 52, 279–282.

Baroni, L., Goggi, S., Battaglino, R., Berveglieri, M., Fasan, I., Filippin, D., Griffith, P., Rizzo, G., Tomasini, C., Tosatti, M., & Battino, M. (2018). Vegan nutrition for mothers and children: Practical tools for healthcare providers. Nutrients, 11(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010005

Baroni, L., Goggi, S., & Battino, M. (2019). Planning well-balanced vegetarian diets in infants, children, and adolescents: The VegPlate Junior. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 119(7), 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2018.06.008

Cayllante, J. P. (2014). Vegetarianismo. Revista de Actualización Clínica Investiga, 42, 2195–2199.

Del Bo, C., Riso, P., Gardana, C., Brusamolino, A., Battezzati, A., & Ciappellano, S. (2019). Effect of two different sublingual dosages of vitamin B 12 on cobalamin nutritional status in vegans and vegetarians with a marginal deficiency: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Nutrition, 38(2), 575–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2018.02.008

Desmond, M. A., Fewtrell, M. S., & Wells, J. C. K. (2024). Plant-based diets in children: Secular trends, health outcomes, and a roadmap for urgent practice recommendations and research—A Systematic review. Nutrients, 16(5), 723. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050723

Fewtrell, M., Bronsky, J., Campoy, C., Domellöf, M., Embleton, N., Fidler Mis, N., Hojsak, I., Hulst, J. M., Indrio, F., Lapillonne, A., & Molgaard, C. (2017). Complementary Feeding. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 64(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000001454

Fraser, G. E. (2009). Vegetarian diets: What do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1607S-1612S. https://doi.org/10.3945/AJCN.2009.26736K

Gibson, R. S., Heath, A.-L. M., & Szymlek-Gay, E. A. (2014). Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(suppl_1), 459S-468S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.071241

Haddad, E. H., & Tanzman, J. S. (2003). What do vegetarians in the United States eat? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3), 626S-632S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/78.3.626S

Hebbelinck, M., Clarys, P., & De Malsche, A. (1999). Growth, development, and physical fitness of Flemish vegetarian children, adolescents, and young adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3), 579s–585s. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/70.3.579s

Hovinen, T., Korkalo, L., Freese, R., Skaffari, E., Isohanni, P., Niemi, M., Nevalainen, J., Gylling, H., Zamboni, N., Erkkola, M., & Suomalainen, A. (2021). Vegan diet in young children remodels metabolism and challenges the statuses of essential nutrients. EMBO Molecular Medicine, 13(2), e13492. https://doi.org/10.15252/emmm.202013492

Kiely, M. E. (2021). Risks and benefits of vegan and vegetarian diets in children. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80(2), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002966512100001X

Kirby, M., & Danner, E. (2009). Nutritional Deficiencies in children on restricted diets. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 56(5), 1085–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.07.003

Krajčovičová-Kudláčková, M., Šimončič, R., Béderová, A., Grančičová, E., & Magálová, T. (1997a). Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children. Food / Nahrung, 41(5), 311–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19970410513

Krajčovičová-Kudláčková, M., Šimončič, R., Béderová, A., & Klvanová, J. (1997b). Plasma fatty acid profile and alternative nutrition. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 41(6), 365–370. https://doi.org/10.1159/000178008

Lemale, J., Mas, E., Jung, C., Bellaiche, M., & Tounian, P. (2019). Vegan diet in children and adolescents. Recommendations from the French-speaking Pediatric Hepatology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition Group (GFHGNP). Archives de Pédiatrie, 26(7), 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2019.09.001

Leung, S., Lee, R., Sung, R., Luo, H., Kam, C., Yuen, M., Hjelm, M., & Lee, S. (2001). Growth and nutrition of Chinese vegetarian children in Hong Kong. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 37(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1754.2001.00647.x

Louzada, G. E., Barboza, D. R. S., Chanca, N. L., De Sousa Coutinho, J. V., Broedel, H. P., De Oliveira, J. V. X., De Oliveira, E. R., & Falsoni, R. M. P. (2023). Dieta vegana e vegetariana: Seus impactos na saúde infantil. Revista Ibero-Americana de Humanidades, Ciências e Educação, 1, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.51891/rease.v1i1.10510

Mangels, A. R., & Messina, V. (2001). Considerations in planning vegan diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101(6), 670–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00169-9

Melina, V., Craig, W., & Levin, S. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(12), 1970–1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025

Nathan, I., Hackett, A., & Kirby, S. (1997). A longitudinal study of the growth of matched pairs of vegetarian and omnivorous children, aged 7–11 years, in the North-West of England. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(1), 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600354

Neufingerl, N., & Eilander, A. (2023). Nutrient intake and status in children and adolescents consuming plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters: A systematic Rrview. Nutrients, 15(20), 4341. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204341

Newby, P. K. (2009). Plant foods and plant-based diets: Protective against childhood obesity? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1572S-1587S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736G

O’Connell, J. M., Dibley, M. J., Sierra, J., Wallace, B., Marks, J. S., & Yip, R. (1989). Growth of vegetarian children: The Farm Study. Pediatrics, 84(3), 475–481. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.84.3.475

Orlich, M. J., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Sabaté, J., Fan, J., Singh, P. N., & Fraser, G. E. (2014). Patterns of food consumption among vegetarians and non-vegetarians. British Journal of Nutrition, 112(10), 1644–1653. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000711451400261X

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Patelakis, E., Lage Barbosa, C., Haftenberger, M., Brettschneider, A.-K., Lehmann, F., Heide, K., Frank, M., Perlitz, H., Richter, A., & Mensink, G. B. (2019). Prevalence of vegetarian diet among children and adolescents in Germany. Results from EsKiMo II. Ernahrungs Umschau, 66, 85–91. https://doi.org/10.4455/eu.2019.018

Pawlak, R., & Bell, K. (2017). Iron Status of Vegetarian Children: A Review of Literature. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 70(2), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1159/000466706

Peretti, N., Darmaun, D., Chouraqui, J. P., Bocquet, A., Briend, A., Feillet, F., Frelut, M. L., Guimber, D., Hankard, R., Lapillonne, A., Rozé, J. C., Simeoni, U., Turck, D., & Dupont, C. (2020). Vegetarian diet in children and adolescents: A health benefit? Archives de Pédiatrie, 27(4), 173–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2020.03.010

Redecilla-Ferreiro, S., Moráis López, A., Moreno Villares, J. M., Redecilla Ferreiro, S., Moráis López, A., Moreno Villares, J. M., Leis Trabazo, R., José Díaz, J., Sáenz de Pipaón, M., Blesa, L., Campoy, C., Ángel Sanjosé, M., Gil Campos, M., & Ares, S. (2020). Recomendaciones del Comité de Nutrición y Lactancia Materna de la Asociación Española de Pediatría sobre las dietas vegetarianas. Anales de Pediatría, 92(5), 306.e1-306.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anpedi.2019.10.013

Richter, M., Boeing, H., Grünewald-Funk, D., Heseker, H., Kroke, A., Leschik-Bonnet, E., Oberritter, H., Strohm, D., & Watzl, B. (2016). Vegan Diet: Position of the German Nutrition Society (DGE). Ernahrungs Umschau, 63(04), 92–102. https://doi.org/10.4455/eu.2016.021

Romero-Velarde, E., Villalpando-Carrión, S., Pérez-Lizaur, A. B., Iracheta-Gerez, M. de la L., Alonso-Rivera, C. G., López-Navarrete, G. E., García-Contreras, A., Ochoa-Ortiz, E., Zarate-Mondragón, F., López-Pérez, G. T., Chávez-Palencia, C., Guajardo-Jáquez, M., Vázquez-Ortiz, S., Pinzón-Navarro, B. A., Torres-Duarte, K. N., Vidal-Guzmán, J. D., Michel-Gómez, P. L., López-Contreras, I. N., Arroyo-Cruz, L. V., … Pinacho-Velázquez, J. L. (2016). Guidelines for complementary feeding in healthy infants. Boletín Médico Del Hospital Infantil de México (English Edition), 73(5), 338–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmhime.2017.11.007

Rudloff, S., Bührer, C., Jochum, F., Kauth, T., Kersting, M., Körner, A., Koletzko, B., Mihatsch, W., Prell, C., Reinehr, T., & Zimmer, K.-P. (2019). Vegetarian diets in childhood and adolescence. Molecular and Cellular Pediatrics, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40348-019-0091-z

Sabaté, J., & Wien, M. (2010). Vegetarian diets and childhood obesity prevention. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(5), 1525S-1529S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2010.28701F

Sanders, T. A. (1988). Growth and development of British vegan children. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48(3), 822–825. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/48.3.822

Scaglioni, S., De Cosmi, V., Mazzocchi, A., Bettocchi, S., & Agostoni, C. (2017). Vegetarian infants and complementary feeding. In Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention (pp. 513–527). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803968-7.00029-0

Schürmann, S., Kersting, M., & Alexy, U. (2017). Vegetarian diets in children: A systematic review. European Journal of Nutrition, 56(5), 1797–1817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-017-1416-0

Sutter, D. O., & Bender, N. (2021). Nutrient status and growth in vegan children. Nutrition Research, 91, 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2021.04.005

Vegetarian Resource Group. (2014). The Vegetarian Resource Group Blog. How many teens and other youth are vegetarian and vegan? The vegetarian resource group asks in a 2014 National Poll. Retrieved from https://www.vrg.org/blog/2014/05/30/how-many-teens-and-other-youth-are-vegetarian-and-vegan-the-vegetarian-resource-group-asks-in-a-2014-national-poll/

Weder, S., Hoffmann, M., Becker, K., Alexy, U., & Keller, M. (2019). Energy, macronutrient intake, and anthropometrics of vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study). Nutrients, 11(4), 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040832

Weder, S., Keller, M., Fischer, M., Becker, K., & Alexy, U. (2022a). Intake of micronutrients and fatty acids of vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous children (1–3 years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study). European Journal of Nutrition, 61(3), 1507–1520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02753-3

Weder, S., Zerback, E. H., Wagener, S. M., Koeder, C., Fischer, M., Alexy, U., & Keller, M. (2022b). How does selenium intake differ among children (1–3 Years) on vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous diets? Results of the VeChi Diet Study. Nutrients, 15(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010034

Yen, C. E., Yen, C. H., Huang, M. C., Cheng, C. H., & Huang, Y. C. (2008). Dietary intake and nutritional status of vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children and their parents in Taiwan. Nutrition Research, 28(7), 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2008.03.012

More

Most read articles by the same author(s)

Miguel Angel Caro Roldán, Briana Davahiva Gómez Ramírez, Ana Maria Narváez Rivas Critical evaluation of the discrepancy between whole and refined foods: nutritional implications

Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition

Keywords

How to Cite

Similar Articles

Most read articles by the same author(s)

Downloads 204

Views 675

Country (Top 10)

Make a Submission

JournalIssue

Keywords

Browse by Category

Information

Highly Accessed

Published by

Useful Links

Connect

Contact Us